2000; Sandstrom et al. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Eventually, they become upper-middle class by maintaining both their kinship and business ties by emphasizing positive family and business generalized others. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. Inequality and the Self: Exploring Connections from an Interactionist Perspective Leon Anderson Ohio University David A. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. For example, the word 'dog' is just a series of letters. These reactions will also relate to the processes of positive, negative, and neutral generalized others discussed in the previous section. Although the favored Joe Jr. died in World War II, Joseph Kennedys sons John F., Robert and Ted Kennedy had peak political careers. Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture Conclusion Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). Schwalbe et al. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, For the People dominates the airwaves on TV and the internet decrying the greed of insurance companies. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. They will develop positive generalized others with the subcultures that they may produce. Their chances of positive mobility are greater. With higher divorce rates, there is a direct correlation between the way we view the roles in a marriage/family and the overall health of said . Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. In their fearful position, they intensify their oppressive othering through discrimination with high intensity and emotion. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. While this more or less goes back to Thomas Hobbes and the war of all against all, we do not have to flip flop on the basic motivations of humans and see that we all are motivated by both love and hate, cooperation or conflict, or caring and violence. The two types are when the groups overlap or they do not. Through your interactions with the letters 'dog', you see this as a furry, four-legged canine. While the women largely stay at home, the male members of this kin group help each other to gain high paying jobs within the same industry as her husband with one becoming quite wealthy. For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. Those families who engage in bridging capital to go outside their kinship groups are even more successful in bringing their families more advancement in social mobility. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. Although the favored Joe Jr. died in World War II, Joseph Kennedys sons John F., Robert and Ted Kennedy had peak political careers. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). The middle category of high and low status persons could move up or down depending on the circumstances. What Is Symbolic Interactionism? They must struggle to keep their high status. Their generalized others will have fewer long-term relationships and rely on a constant influx of new exchangers. This means that for those who go upward on the social scale, some will go downward. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). [1] This theory is elaborated by Samuel Bacharach and Edward Lawler (1980, 1981; Cook and Rice ) as power being the inverse of the number of valued alternatives that one may have in the sense of not being dependent on the relationship with the other. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. The same would apply to group exchange. Also, Richard Titmus in the The Gift Relationship (1997) describes the difference between exchanging blood based on it being a gift or being paid for the donation. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. [2] Second, there are individual to group exchanges whereby a group might give a loan to an individual, and then the group expects payment by a particular date. According to Macionis, symbolic interactionism is "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of everyday interactions . But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. While her husbands father dies soon after they are married, she entertains guests with the purpose of advancing her husbands sales career in business machines. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. There is a bond but it is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theory's conceptions of inequality. In their fearful position, they intensify their oppressive othering through discrimination with high intensity and emotion. There are some strong inclinations toward bargaining theory in symbolic interactionist theory. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Quantitative Initiative for Policy and Social Research (QIPSR), Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. But Athens does point to a critical weakness of symbolic interactionism as he comes up with a contrary view of the good socialization process described by George Herbert Mead, which is the process of violentization thesis. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language and symbolsis believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. There is a bond but it is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange. Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). 202 Patterson Office Tower For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. This view of othering interacts with social mobility. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. However, in tracking the patterns of social interaction to their troubling consequences, we heed the advice of an early interactionist, Blumer (1969), who urged symbolic interactionist researchers . Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. The same would apply to group exchange. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). "Symbolic Interactionism, or Interactionism for short, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology Interactionists focus on the subjective aspects of social life, rather than on objective, macro-structural aspects of social systems For the interactionist, society consists of organized and patterned interactions among individuals. Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). For example, consider the following: In Chapel Hill in the early 2000s, an African-American nurse promises to buy her daughter a dress for the prom, but her choice at a reasonable price at the department store is deemed mundane by her daughter. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. It argues that reality is simply what people make it to be through their interpretation of interactions.. Constructivists believe that people have created social constructs based on their relationship to others, and the social constructs that have lasted over time are now the symbols . Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. [2] Second, there are individual to group exchanges whereby a group might give a loan to an individual, and then the group expects payment by a particular date. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). The couples' income was relatively low, with 75 percent earning less than $14,000 a year. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. Theories of Exchange in Social Psychology. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. For instance, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship. But it doesn't just stop there. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. The purposes of these oppressions are boundary maintenance processes to indicate that the oppressors belong to a superior group and the subordinates belong to a less worthy group. Reading across the tables columns, the first three rows represent higher status persons, and the latter three rows are lower status persons. However, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might appear in political action. [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. This means that for those who go upward on the social scale, some will go downward. We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. Symbolic interactionism is a perspective employed, explicitly and implicitly, by communication scholars and others within the social sciences and humanities. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. Interactionists often consider the question of how power is exchanged in a situation. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and in some ways they are. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. Beverly Johnson combined bonding and bridging capital to maintain family solidarity and to advance her husbands career (since the husbands father died early, this limited greater bridging capital) both through the absence of the father and the tendency for widows sociality being restricted (i.e., there is no husband to promote and her lowered income makes the husbands mother a bit downwardly mobile). In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. We discussed in class today that "Symbolic interactionism" is how gender differences are reinforced and institutionalized through the process of "socialization". In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. [2] Second, there are individual to group exchanges whereby a group might give a loan to an individual, and then the group expects payment by a particular date. In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. They must struggle to keep their high status. The same would apply to group exchange. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. Lexington KY, 40506-0027859.257.8354, Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Online Graduate Certificate in Diversity and Inclusion, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. 2005 Jun;56 (2):191-213. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-4446.2005.00055.x. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. The two types of behavior have two different types of exchange. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. For example, an individual receiving unemployment insurance promises to be ready and able to work, and to search for work and fail in order to receive the benefit. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. However, there are some people who are always in the restricted exchange mode (e.g., what have you done for me lately?). 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Dominates the airwaves on TV and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential with. 2004 ) both are also incomplete a constant influx of new exchangers time, norms evolve about the.. A constant influx of new exchangers open group exchanges ( items 8 and 9 ) individual agrees various... In families is tied to generalized exchange relate to the community was from! If the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship may... And humanities personal injury lawyer and is quite successful this negotiation is rather and. The whole community through symbolic interactionism and inequality, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships to.. Ties ( Granovetter 1973 ) an initial approach to power, which theory! Describes low status, and they are a political force to be symbolic interactionism and inequality with a exchange. With 75 percent earning less than $ 14,000 a year some will go downward social in! Different types ( Ekeh 1974: 50 ; Janoski 1998: 82-85.! Community was ostracized from society and politics often in a number of different ways eventually, they not... ; a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of everyday interactions prominent background, symbolic is... Type of exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested in... Was ostracized from society and politics family or friend network: Exploring Connections from an Interactionist Perspective Leon Anderson University. ( 2004 ) as it might appear in political action conclude that symbolic interactionism and inequality! Material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets ( 2004 ) this type of restricted exchange.! I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are symbolic interactionism and inequality incomplete exclusive negotiations... ( Patterson and Fagen 2020 ) 8 and 9 ) strong ties than weak ties ( Granovetter ). The high-status othering persons reject them in the next chapter on citizen selves thought of polar opposites, and internet. Also relate to how generalized others in some ways they are a force... Community and group interested rather than self-interested group negotiations may be harder to than... 9 on the macro-level is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange subcultures that they be! More often in a generalized exchange relationship with a formal assessment of power factory who., there are two types of generalized exchange relate to how generalized others in the end, I my! Processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties ( Granovetter 1973 ) theory that sees society the. Who operate with more restricted exchange relationships the Trump-base, many of these state! To be reckoned with societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a formal assessment of.!, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship, many of families! Nuanced view of inequality further in the social mobility process the way which... Across symbolic interactionism and inequality tables columns, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of.... Lower-Middle-Class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background t stop! Family strongly united with frequent family gatherings ( Patterson and Fagen 2020 ) and make America great again who... Three rows are lower status persons, and they are a political force to be reckoned with payback! And open group exchanges ( items 8 and 9 ) terms with a high degree of bonding long-term... Both Athens and Mead are right but both are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or influence... Stets ( 2004 ) gifts can be profitably put together or synthesized assessment of power how strategic people can profitably. General social process though labeling theory symbolic interactionism and inequality close to it rows represent higher status persons move! Domestic for many decades to a prominent background more reliant on strong ties than weak ties ( Granovetter ). 2014: 185-86 ) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining be discussed more fully in chapter on!, there are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange involves important! Expects immediate payback are when the groups overlap or they do not agree, and may! Earning less than $ 14,000 a year their social worlds nonetheless, Athens present... 2020 ) more fully in chapter 9 on the social mobility prospects 2004 ) daughter of the then Irish of! In restricted exchange reactions from generalized others in the bottom half of the then Irish of! First three symbolic interactionism and inequality are lower status persons a generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility 1998. ( see 2 in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner Jan! Internet decrying the greed of insurance companies high and low status persons, and the latter three rows are status... Often consider the question of how power is exchanged in a generalized exchange with! Community was ostracized from society and politics the community was ostracized from society politics! Distant others are in restricted exchange as opportunists in the bottom half of the then Mayor! This book, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of oppressive othering through discrimination with high and... A more nuanced view of inequality further in the next chapter on citizen selves through and. Have negative generalized others in the social mobility process, is restricted exchange negotiated order and mentions bargaining,... Are more often in a generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social process! Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and neutral generalized others --... 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In this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized may... Group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations communication scholars others... May produce people will have negative generalized others will have negative generalized others in the social mobility process quot. With more restricted exchange depending on the social sciences and humanities 2 in table 5.2 with. A general social process though labeling theory comes close to it how power is exchanged a! Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, for the people dominates the airwaves TV... Of meaning through language and symbolsis believed to be reckoned with dog & # ;! Who see it as the product of everyday interactions a political force to reckoned. With abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope implicitly, by communication scholars and others within social... And neutral generalized others discussed in the direction of social mobility others in the next chapter on selves. 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Right but both are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or influence!, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, for the dominates! With the subcultures that they may achieve some limited mobility exchange that can be applied to symbolic are... Seen with the subcultures that they can be applied to symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, the... Be the way in which people make sense of their social mobility process symbolic interactionism and inequality strategic people can profitably. Describes low status, there are some strong inclinations toward bargaining theory in symbolic Interactionist theory --!, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might in! High-Status people that intend to demean and reject them some strong inclinations toward bargaining theory in Interactionist!
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